Antony and the Ides of March

This article is a comprehensive prosopography of Mark Antony. I didn’t do this because of some fanatical, overzealous obsession I have with M.A. (well, maybe just a little), but instead because of how well he represents the dispositions and attitudes of Republican politics. Throughout this piece, hopefully, like me, you’ll come to realize how Antony, already a prominent figure in Roman politics, could have utilized Caesar’s death as an opportunity to levy auctoritas in the Roman Republic.

Antony’s father was of the Antonii gens[1], and his mother the Julia gens[2]. As prominent as these families were, they held significant influence in the Senate and Tribunes.[3] Mark Antony, his families’ chosen champion in a brutal political climate, desired an ascent to power to impose the united agendas of his gentes. And what better time to do so than amidst a cavernous power vacuum following the assassination of Gaius Julius Caesar? To Antony, Caesar was a comrade in war, a political ally, a brother even; but perhaps most of all, a man possessing power one could only dream of.[4] Being in a position to harness this level of power, just as Antony was, represented an opportunity none would relinquish.

As was the custom of the Roman Republic, I envisioned Antony writing and orating two works in response to Caesar’s death:  a (highly embellished) family history, and a speech given in the Senate. As you read these to-be recitations, try to place yourself in their political contexts: a harrowing power vacuum, civil unrest, and political rivals palpitating at the prospect of “disappearing” their opponents. But even more so, let’s see if you can peer through the veil of propaganda and embellishment that I’ve placed throughout this piece.  

Family History

Antony describes his ancestors, their deeds, and the legacy of both his family lineages.

The conception of the noble Mark Antony heralds a tale of glory: an illustrious tale of prestige, justice, power, and destiny amongst two distinguished families. Antonius's parental heritage is that of the Antonii, descendants of Hercules himself. Despite being of plebeian origins, his ancestors ennobled the family in perpetuity through unprecedented political victories. Indeed, Antony’s grandfather, Marcus Antonius was the greatest orator of his time. Even conceited Cicero attempts to emulate his craft to this day.[5] Antonius found himself quaestor in Asia during 113 BC. In his eloquent (albeit needless) defenses against a myriad of fictitious allegations, Antonius propelled the Antonii to forge an alliance with the aristocratic Metelli gentes, all the while supporting the Marian cause.[6] Still, Antonius’s brilliance had yet to reach its zenith. As praetor governing Roman ports along the Cilician coast in 102 BC, Antonius was commissioned to combat pirates who dominated the eastern Mediterranean and impeded travel and commerce to Italy. He was subsequently granted imperium majus: the jurisdiction to issue orders to other provincial governors. Gathering resources and ships, he waged an unrelenting war upon the pirates in 100 BC, crushing them into submission.[7] A statue of him was accordingly erected in Rome as consul in 99 BC, eternalizing his glory for all to revel in. In the strife of the Social War, Antonius was copious in imposing Marian policies, granting citizenship to the Italian people. Such created perpetual gratitude for the Antonii family for generations to come. He continued to fight for this noble cause until the abrupt end of his days - a loathsome act of betrayal by Marius’s proscriptions.[8] His sons, Marcus Antonius Creticus and Gaius Antonius Hybrida, continued to demonstrate this prowess. Creticus was a kindly man, regularly offering loans and donations to those in need.[9] Similar to his father, Antonius became praetor in 74 BC and once again tasked to combat a resurgence of pirates with imperium majus once again.[10] Remarkably, the great Caesar served as Marcus’s legate in 73 BC. In their relationship, Caesar vowed, if anything of misfortune were to occur, to protect Hybrida’s children as his own.[11] Tragically, Antonius died shortly thereafter in 71 BC. Antonius’s brother Gaius Hybrida served in the Mithridatic War with Sulla. Despite incurring debts from campaigning, he became tribune of the plebs in 68, praetor in 66, and ultimately consul in 63 BC. Amidst temptation and corruption, Gaius defeated the traitorous Catiline in 62 BC, restoring order to Rome.[12]

Antony’s maternal descent is that of the Julii Caesares, descendants of the great goddess Venus as well as pious Aeneas. They too gained public prominence, truncating wars and demonstrating unprecedented valor in battle. Lucius Julius Caesar, Antony’s maternal grandfather, was praetor in 95 BC, then held governorship over Macedonia in 94. Elected consul in 90 BC, Lucius Caesar was thrust into the throes of the Social War[13]. In recognition of the Italian populares he passed the lex Julia de Civitate, granting citizenship to those Latin and Italian states who were faithful to Rome. This legislation passed with stupendous effect; the unity of the Italian alliance was completely dissolved, effectively ending the War altogether.[14]  And yet, once again, evil prevails. Lucius Caesar was slain by the Marian proscriptions, the same slaughter that had befallen Marcus Antonius. His son of the same name continued to serve for the good of Rome. He was elected quaestor in 77, praetor in 67, and most prominently consul in 64 and 63. Most notably, Lucius Caesar served as legate for the great Caesar alongside Antony during the Gallic Wars, commanding 10,000 legionaries with distinction in the Siege of Alesia.[15] In this role, Lucius Caesar also accompanied Caesar’s expedition into Italy during the Civil War. These campaigns served to further the great Caesar’s camaraderie with Antony’s ancestors.[16] Finally, Antony’s mother, Julia, must not be omitted from this account. She, an intimate cousin (footnote) of the great Caesar, was the most powerful woman of her time. Distinguished in her strong-mindedness and unparalleled intellect, she supported her relatives’ political endeavors, as well as Caesar’s virtuous cause in the Civil War.

In sum, the Antonii and the Julii Caesares have procured stupendous political and military success, all the while battling vehemently for peace, prosperity, and justice in Rome. Thus, only one man is worthy to impose the great Caesar’s will, whose families have, through fabled tales of victory and allegiance, aligned their cause with that of Caesar. That man is Mark Antony.

Speech to the Senate

17th of March, 44 BCE; Two days after Caesar’s assassination. Antony upon receiving this news, had fled Rome in the robes of a beggar. Once safe, Antony now convenes and addresses the Senate as a response to this crisis.

O conscript fathers, I have convened the Senate regarding a matter of which I am certain we are all aware. Rome teeters between life and death. Our magnanimous imperator, pioneer, and liberator Gaius Julius Caesar has fallen, brutishly maimed in twenty-three consecutive blows by those deeming themselves “Libratores”. (Scoffs) Indeed, these impious men have liberated us; liberated us from any iota of peace and order. Our streets are in flame; our vulgus mutter of open rebellion, grasping their torches and pitchforks in anticipation, calling for the heads of these liberators; even this very Senate reeks of debauchery and treason.

(prolonged pause, scanning the faces of every Senator M.A. is addressing, stopping at Cicero)

What say you, Cicero?[17] You “throw yourself about”[18], still flaunting shamelessly an obscure deed, that of the expulsion of a certain Catiline nearly twenty years ago.[19] And yet, you dare sit here in the Senate, participate in public affairs, pointing and designating eyes among us for slaughter![20]Who among us Caesarians is destined to be killed? Lepidus? Young Octavian? Newly widowed Calpurnia? My dear Fulvia? Your collusions with these monsters are clearer to me than light.[21]But rest assured, O conscript fathers; I alone will safeguard the res publica even in death.

My family and I, Marcus Antonius, augur, legate, tribunus plebis, magister equituum, consul at Caesar’s side, am no stranger to greatness. For we are the sole descendants of Hercules; the conception of Jupiter himself and the foremost hero immortalized as Alexikakos - ‘Averter of Evil’.  And yet, never in my family’s heritage have we witnessed as noble, as valiant, and as splendiferous a man as the great Caesar.

Riddle me, O conscript fathers, what good was there in Rome prior to this man’s reign? It seemed only fleeting moments ago Rome found itself ravaged in the throes of war, no, a rebellion, by the very lands and people we had conquered; then shortly a barbaric civil war, in which my noble grandfather, an orator whom even this Cicero lauds, was slain by Gaius Marius. And what of now? The barbarians of Gaul, not unlike the Nemean Lion, once stood invincible. Now, the mighty Nervii, Haeduii, Belgae, Allobroges, Helvetii, Arverni, Ebrones, Parisii, (attributes), and Sensones weep in ignominious defeat, groveling at the feet of Rome.[22] The mythological land of Brittania, like the Erymanthian boar, was once fleeting, mysterious, and destructive. They proved nothing more than trifling impediments to Caesar’s conquest.

But Caesar’s eminence is not merely defined by military conquest; no, no. Perhaps his most powerful trait was his unshakable humanitas. Never once did Caesar needlessly slaughter or pillage. Repeatedly, at the height of despotism and war, Caesar attempted to negotiate peace with Pompey with virtue and forgiveness; repeatedly the great Caesar was ignored. So I inquire of you once more; who is Caesar? To his legionaries: a faithful yet brilliant general, unafraid to unsaddle his horse and brandish his sword among his legionaries; to the common citizen: a sympathetic ruler, selfless in fighting for the peace of Rome. Even to his enemies: a merciful man even in the gleeful eyes of victory, never hesitant to recognize one’s valor in battle. And to me, a revolutionary politician, an eternal comrade, and a dear friend. I weep to the gods at the loss of such an extraordinary man; nay, a god.[23]

And yet, Brutus of the assassins dared to say “sic semper tyrannis” as his blade fell upon the great Caesar's throat. Yet, ask yourselves, who is the true tyrant? The one who, alongside myself, had vanquished Pompey at Pharsalus, a man who had once seized you all by the throat in this very room? The man who so casually upheaved Senate law, amassing his troops for war despite my vetoes as tribune? My dear Brutus, have you learnt nothing under Caesar’s tutelage? Have you truly forgotten his lessons of respect, dignity, and honesty? Insolent child. Perhaps you are his greatest mistake.[24] And now, where in the world are we? What are these barbaric times we live in? Rome lies in tatters. Caesar’s veteran legions have marched to Rome in fury. The streets of Rome burn bright with vengeance and bloodlust. The libratores cower behind fortifications on our sacred Capitoline Hill. The bloodthirsty shadow of Civil War looms once more. But most of all, its greatest leader was vanquished at the hands of his own son. (Pause in speech)

Not all is lost; conscript fathers. For I, Mark Antony, am imbued with the essence of Alexikakos - ‘Averter of Evil’. Miserable Calpurnia, whose betrothed lays dead, bestows upon me the great Caesar’s acta. As its sole heir[25] and consul of the state, I shall bear the weight of his breathing will and his future prospects on my shoulders. And yet, as I read its contents, my eyes fill with shimmering tears, for so great a man even in his final moments displays humility, reason, and humanitas. In his will, Caesar states for his would-be assassins to be pardoned of their crimes. He also urges the distribution of his property among his esteemed veterans, and allocation of his wealth and gold amongst the commonplace. (Pause in speech) Finally, he declares the inauguration of Mark Antony as sole consul, as well as his promotion to pontifex maximus in order to consolidate the best interests of the Roman people.

This wisdom ought to be heeded by us all. These libratores continue to extend their fallacious and cancerous roots into our society; attempting to kill them would only unleash these rabid dogs of war and plunge Rome further into destruction. In light of Caesar’s humanitas, of the rebellious spirit among the vulgus, and of compromise, these assassins ought to be ostracized into the far lands of Greece and Africa, never to touch the veneer of civilization. Only then will the head of the snake be severed.

You have all witnessed a time before Caesar. A time of chaos and savagery. And once again, we are thrust, by the gods once more, into these same calamities. Only when Caesar’s placidity, order, and humanitas are once more impelled into Rome shall she see the light of day. I alone: Marcus Antonius, descendant of Hercules, glory of the Antonii and Julii gentes, conqueror of Syria and Egypt, once augur and tribune of the plebs, now magister equitum and consul elected by Caesar, shall do so. Those who bellow with the prospects of war and belligerence; check yourselves. Those who desire to plot further machinations of destruction: scuttle back to the depths of Tartarus. Conscript fathers, ratify the acta of Caesar, rid these barbarians from our lands with remarkable tolerance, and watch Rome prosper once more under my stewardship. Carpete actionem.

Notes

[1] Gens were socio-political groups not only connected by lineage but also by financial dependency and subservience. Here, the Antonius gens claims descendance from Hercules. 

[2] The Julia gentes, supposedly deriving their name from Ilus, Aeneas’s son, is thus descended from Venus, Aeneas’s original mother.

[3] More specifically, prominent gentes during the Republican era were recorded to have sullied popular support in both the Senate and the Tribunes, as well as demonstrated early forms of meandering. For more, take Dr. Samuels’s History 314 Class.

[4] Upon his death, his wife Calpurnia granted Antony Caesar’s acta,  (which consisted of his will, future plans, and designations) essentially placing the responsibility of Caesar’s legacy solely in Antony’s hands. In our context, it also allowed Antony to weaponize Caesar’s words as he saw fit.

[5] Cicero lauds Antonius in his work “De Oratore”. Huzar, “Mark Antony: A Biography,” 13.

[6] Ibid, 14.

[7] Strong hyperbole; Antonius was only able to establish a foothold and an advantageous compromise against the pirates. Ibid, 14.

[8] I praise the original Marcus Antonius here (perhaps with merit) extravagantly because he epitomized the idealized themes of the two families: 1. Unprecedented political authority, and 2. Fighting and dying for the cause of the populares.

[9] Plutarch, “Life of Antony,” 139.

[10] The resolution of this conflict is omitted; despite being granted consul-worthy imperium, Creticus suffered a “disastrous failure”. Huzar, “Mark Antony: A Biography,” 16.

[11] This almost certainly never occurred (at least not in the sources I accrued); it is fictitiously added to strengthen Caesar’s alleged relationship with Antony’s ancestors.

[12] Gaius was an ostensibly inept consul; he was not only previously an ally of Catiline, but was also repeatedly manipulated by Cicero. A good precursor to later allusions to the Catilinarian conspiracies.

[13] Preceded the aforementioned conflict between Sulla and Marius; a conflict between the Roman Republic and integrated Italian states declaring independence. (91-88 BC)

[14] Another embellishment; Caesar was only able to do through numerous bloody stalemates in battle. Ibid, 20.

[15] Caesar, “Commentarii De Bello Gallico.” Book 8, Chapters 80-90.

[16] More, of course, baseless conjecture.

[17] A recurring theme across all sources was Cicero’s hostile relationship with M.A. I take this opportunity to voice Antony’s animosity towards Cicero not only as a personal, but political rival.

[18] A term Cicero often used to describe Catiline’s machinations in his orations; mockery.

[19] A sentiment that both I and Dr. Samuels share.

[20] A direct reference to paragraph 2 of Cicero’s first oration against Catiline.

[21] Another reference (paragraph 6) to the same speech; both used to create a parallel and hypocrisy between Cicero and Catiline. Cicero may have colluded with the libratores in the assassination of Caesar.

[22] Caesar, “Commentarii De Bello Gallico.”

[23] Alluding to Antony’s controversial public crowning of Caesar as a king.

[24] Brutus, allying with Pompey, was pardoned and adopted by Caesar after the Battle of Pharsalus.

[25] I spent a long time deliberating this word; not only does heir hold the connotation of blood relationship, but also the connotation of rightful/legal possession. 

Bibliography

Plutarch. Demetrius and Antony; Pyrrhus and Caius Marius. Harvard University Press, 1988.

Caesar, Julius, and Silvia Colombati. De Bello Gallico. European Language Institute, 1996.

Huzar, Eleanor G. Mark Antony: A Biography. Croom Helm, 1986.

S., Broughton T Robert, and Marica L. Patterson. The Magistrates of the Roman Republic. The American Philological Ass., 1968.

Goldsworthy, Adrian. Antony and Cleopatra. Yale University Press.

William C. Morey. “Outlines of Roman History”. New York, American Book Company (1901).

David, Jean-Michel (2000). La République romaine de la deuxième guerre punique à la bataille d'Actium [The Roman Republic of the Second Punic War to the Battle of Actium].

Ramsey, John T. “The Senate, Mark Antony, and Caesar’s Legislative Legacy.” The Classical Quarterly 44, no. 1 (1994): 130–45. http://www.jstor.org/stable/638878.

Abbott, Frank Frost (1901). A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions. Elibron Classics